Philippine Jeepney Modernization Puts Artists and a Cultural Legacy at Risk

A Painter Faces the End of His Moving Canvas

Kenneth Bon Salonga, 38, has spent more than 20 years painting the vehicles that turn Philippine streets into moving galleries. In his Metro Manila garage, spare parts hang from the ceiling under cobwebs. Between two dismantled jeepneys, he works with hands covered in deep red paint, adding detailed lines to a side window panel for a frieze dedicated to Spiderman.

Salonga's workshop, somewhere between a garage and a laboratory, captures what is at stake in the Philippine government's transport modernization campaign. Replacing older jeepneys promises cleaner air, safer journeys and more comfortable rides. It also threatens a livelihood built around decorating vehicles whose replacements often arrive with fixed, uniform designs.

Salonga, a jeepney artist who grew up fascinated by the vehicles, described his reaction to modernization:

When I first heard about jeepney modernisation, of course I felt sad. We would lose our jobs, because we would no longer be allowed to design modern units. You are not allowed to touch them, whatever the design of the minibus is, that's already fixed. It's really sad because, imagine, I grew up with that. Every day you see the jeepneys pass by. When I was young I was really obsessed with jeepneys.

As of January 18, 2026, the debate reaches far beyond paintwork. Traditional jeepneys are estimated to carry 40 million passenger trips a day nationwide. Their replacement affects drivers, small operators, mechanics, artists and passengers who depend on inexpensive transport. New electric models that retain the familiar jeepney shape offer another possibility, although affordability and the future of personalized artwork remain central concerns.

How Discarded Jeeps Became a Filipino Symbol

Jeepneys emerged after World War II, when American forces left thousands of Willys Jeeps in the Philippines. Filipinos extended the vehicles, added benches at the rear and turned military equipment into public transport. The name combines "jeep" and "knee," referring to the cramped seating in which passengers' knees often touched.

Jose Victor Torres, a historian and professor at De La Salle University-Manila, described their origins as an expression of resourcefulness:

It was a symbol of resilience. It was something that was born out of necessity, out of materials that were totally discarded.

Torres also called the jeepney "a Frankenstein's monster of different parts and pieces." His description captures how Filipinos assembled useful vehicles from discarded materials and made them distinctly their own.

Personalized decoration gained momentum in the 1980s, when overseas Filipino workers invested in jeepneys and used elaborate designs as visible signs of their earnings and success. Practical vehicles became canvases for social trends, political movements and everyday life.

Jeepney artists generally work informally, leaving their numbers undocumented in official labor and business registries. Community knowledge suggests that hundreds once practiced the craft, while only a handful remain. Freelancers typically earn US$250 to US$340 a month and often take additional work as auto mechanics or graphic designers.

A complete custom job can bring approximately US$5,000 and take two months to finish, but such commissions are increasingly rare. For painters such as Salonga, fewer individually decorated vehicles mean fewer opportunities to earn from a skill developed over decades.

What the Pictures Say About Filipino Life

Bru Sim, a graphic artist and author of "Jeepney Biyaheng Langit," which documents religious imagery on jeepneys, described how family photographs, faith and entertainment share the same surface:

You see it from the jeepney imagery, where there's a graduation photo of a child or a baby photo next to Papa Jesus, next to Pokemon, next to Lord of the Rings, next to gaming monsters. So it's really a mixed bag.

Sim explained that the combinations express different parts of Filipino identity:

We're not just tacky. We're also religious. We're serious, but we're also funny. Family is very important to us. The Filipino identity is really in flux, based on the jeep.

A study published on ResearchGate examined jeepney decorations through semiotic analysis, the study of how images and signs communicate meaning. It identified recurring themes of love and sex, driving speed, economic success, religion and family. These images both reflect Filipino identities and help shape them as vehicles move through different communities.

Religious decorations include the Sacred Heart of Jesus, the Virgin Mary and saints, placed inside and outside vehicles. Bible verses appear on different parts of jeepneys as sources of inspiration and protection for drivers and passengers. Their presence reflects religious faith rooted partly in the country's history of Spanish colonization and still visible in daily public life.

Pictures of money, recognizable brand logos, successful people and objects associated with social status express hopes for financial security and advancement. Chrome miniature wings, missiles, birds and airplanes convey speed. They reflect drivers' image of themselves as capable navigators of city traffic, alongside wider desires for efficiency and progress.

The research describes moving jeepneys as carriers of cultural narratives. Their images encounter different social settings, influence perceptions and affect social norms. Losing these traveling symbols could make public spaces more uniform and change how everyday cultural messages circulate.

A Shared Ride Built Around Cooperation

Traditional jeepneys seat around 20 passengers on two benches facing each other at the rear. That arrangement encourages conversation between people from different backgrounds. Personalized pictures and messages add humor, gratitude, faith and aspirations to a journey that is also a shared social experience.

Passengers commonly pass fares toward the driver with help from fellow riders, relying on an honor system rather than turnstiles or a conductor collecting every payment. This everyday cooperation reflects "bayanihan," the Filipino tradition of communal unity and mutual help.

Jeepneys also connect residential neighborhoods with major transport hubs. This is often called the "last mile": the part of a journey between a larger transport service and a person's home or destination. For passengers with limited income, losing that connection without a suitable replacement could make work, school and other daily journeys harder.

The estimate of 40 million passenger trips per day describes journeys, rather than 40 million different people. Its scale explains why modernization involves more than buying new vehicles. Routes, fares, ownership and the availability of replacement services all affect the people who rely on jeepneys.

What the Modernization Program Requires

The Philippine government launched the Public Utility Vehicle Modernization Program (PUVMP) in 2017. Described as the country's most extensive transport reform initiative, it aims to replace traditional jeepneys with vehicles that are safer, more comfortable and less polluting.

Under the program, traditional jeepneys older than 15 years would no longer qualify for registration. Replacement vehicles must meet requirements that include compliant engines, GPS systems and automated fare collection. GPS allows a vehicle's location to be tracked, while automated collection replaces or reduces the handling of cash fares.

Operators must also consolidate into cooperatives or corporations with at least 15 vehicles. This changes the business model from individual ownership toward fleets managed collectively or by companies. The decision affects who buys vehicles, carries debt and controls daily operations.

The government's preferred replacements are typically electric minibuses or vehicles built to meet Euro 4 emissions standards. Euro 4 sets limits on pollutants released from vehicle exhaust. Electric vehicles use batteries and motors instead of diesel engines. Modern replacements offer standardized safety equipment, reduced emissions and improved passenger comfort.

A 2016 Manila Observatory study attributed 15 percent of particulate matter emissions in Metro Manila to jeepneys powered by diesel. Particulate matter consists of tiny airborne particles that contribute to harmful air pollution. Cleaner vehicles therefore address a public health concern as well as a transport problem.

Safety is another reason for reform. Reports describe thousands of jeepney traffic incidents each year in cities such as Metro Manila. Open vehicle designs, limited modern safety features and sometimes reckless driving contribute to the concerns raised by transport officials.

The program has faced repeated protests and strikes, with implementation deadlines extended several times. The COVID-19 pandemic temporarily halted modernization, demonstrating both operators' resilience and the importance of jeepneys in daily life. The government resumed its push in 2023.

• 2016: A Manila Observatory study attributed 15 percent of Metro Manila's particulate matter emissions to diesel jeepneys.
• 2017: The government launched the Public Utility Vehicle Modernization Program.
• During the COVID-19 pandemic: Modernization was temporarily halted.
• 2023: The government resumed its modernization push.
• Early 2025: The Department of Transportation expressed openness to changes in the program.
• July 2025: South Luzon's first electric vehicle assembly plant began operating in Batangas.

The Price of Replacing a Livelihood

Modern jeepneys cost PHP2.4 million to PHP2.8 million, approximately US$43,000 to US$50,000. The average jeepney driver earns around PHP500 to PHP600 a day, or US$9 to US$11, barely enough to support a family. Even with government assistance, buying a replacement can be beyond an individual operator's means.

George San Mateo, a driver for almost three decades who heads Piston, the Pinagkaisang Samahan ng mga Tsuper at Operator Nationwide, explained why his transport rights group opposes the program's terms:

Piston has no problem with modernization because we consider ourselves progressive. We are progressive, so we are not anti-development. But the problem with the modernization program... it is anti-poor and profit-oriented.

Drivers and operators argue that the replacement program could favor large corporations while ending small businesses. Their concern is the gap between the cost of a new vehicle and the income available to pay for it. Thousands of drivers face possible displacement if they cannot afford the transition.

An examination of modernization's advantages and disadvantages identified dealers, manufacturers and financiers as beneficiaries of the replacement market. Many drivers accept modernization in principle while opposing financial requirements they cannot meet.

A study of implementation in Cebu City identified operators' limited purchasing capacity, insufficient support from government agencies and resistance from transport groups concerned about job losses and reduced income. Research into drivers' resilience examined how they cope with unstable earnings and the threat of unemployment. It called for practical solutions, stronger government support and recognition of locally made jeepneys to support economic stability.

Artists and Provinces Carry Part of the Cost

Salonga and other painters face a different financial threat from drivers: the loss of work when individualized jeepneys become fleets with matching designs. The newer models generally leave less room for the elaborate personal artwork that made traditional vehicles distinctive. The transition affects an ecosystem of trades, rather than vehicle owners alone.

Older jeepneys disappearing from cities have also resurfaced in the provinces. That movement shifts aging vehicles, pollution and safety risks away from urban centers while rural communities increasingly depend on vehicles displaced from the capital. Critics argue that some problems are being relocated rather than removed.

Felomino Cruz Jr., a 75-year-old jeepney designer who has long worked with a paint gun, supports replacement. He explained his position through complaints about noise and driver behavior:

I am in favour of modernisation. Because of the noise of the exhaust, the noise of the engine, the noise of the conductor, sometimes there are even drivers who are drug addicts. And their style is to turn the vehicles into racing cars. Jeeps have become extreme.

Cruz's view shows that the artistic community is divided. Preserving painted vehicles matters to some designers, while others place greater weight on quieter engines, safer driving and better passenger conditions. The same transition can promise improvements for riders while taking work away from people who build and decorate the vehicles.

Electric Models Keep the Familiar Shape

In July 2025, South Luzon's first electric vehicle assembly plant began operations at LIMA Industrial Estate, on the border of Lipa City and Malvar Town in Batangas. The LCS-EMON e-Jeepney Manufacturing Corp. facility marked a development for local manufacturing and the modernization program.

Luis "Chavit" Singson, the company's chief executive, presented the venture as a way to revive the local transport industry while preserving the jeepney's recognizable appearance:

It must carry the iconic jeepney look, which is considered a cultural heritage.

The company's target price is PHP1.2 million per unit, approximately US$21,300. That is half the PHP2.4 million lower end of the conventional modern jeepney price range. Its e-J01 prototype has a range of 100 kilometers on a full charge, seats 22 passengers and accommodates six more standing. Air conditioning adds a comfort feature absent from traditional open vehicles.

Some online critics described the design as "backward" and associated it with a "that's good enough" mindset. Many operators and cooperatives supported keeping the familiar appearance while meeting modernization requirements.

Francisco Motors has developed another fully electric model, the "Francisco Jeepney," retaining the traditional look. Its stated price is PHP985,000 for the first 1,000 units. The owner described replacing iconic jeepneys with imported minibuses as "like removing a piece of our identity."

These designs provide practical examples of combining electric technology with a recognizable Philippine vehicle. Their prices are lower than the PHP2.4 million to PHP2.8 million range, although preserving a body shape and providing paid work for painters are separate decisions. Fleet owners would still need to make room for individual decoration.

Political Pressure to Preserve Character

Senator Grace Poe, chair of the Senate committee on public services, argued that traditional jeepney designs should have a place within modernization. In a radio interview, she connected cultural preservation with compliance with safety requirements:

Let us allow our iconic jeepney designs to be used as long as they can keep up with the safety requirements... you can tweak the designs of these jeepneys to make it safer and more convenient for the public.

Poe suggested employing artists as consultants to maintain cultural character, pointing to public transport elsewhere that carries national cultural trademarks. She criticized proposed modern designs as "ugly and lacking character" and elaborated:

Aren't they ugly? They look like boxes, which I couldn't understand. It lacks character. The designs do not have soul.

A published opinion on the phaseout framed it as a matter of livelihood, environment, safety, culture and social justice. It argued that jeepney culture is sometimes overlooked because culture is treated as a fixed tradition rather than something that changes. The discussion also connected fare sharing and communal travel with class tensions, questioning whether powerful people seeking to remove jeepneys practice the honor associated with those everyday exchanges.

In early 2025, Transportation Secretary Vivencio B. Dizon said the Department of Transportation was open to adjustments after identifying transport groups' concerns:

We are open to changes... Clearly, there are some issues that need to be resolved. It is important for us to identify these problems first and then we will address these.

Dizon's statement created an opening for reconsidering parts of the program. No date was given for changes specifically protecting jeepney artwork or guaranteeing artists a role in replacement fleets.

Keeping Art Alive During the Transition

Research on jeepney symbolism suggests that modernization can incorporate traditional artwork into new vehicles. The central issue is whether cleaner transport will still carry the family memories, religious images, jokes and aspirations that make individual jeepneys recognizable.

Proposals include allowing drivers or operators to personalize part of a modern vehicle, giving artists a defined surface on which to work. National databases and museums dedicated to jeepney art have also been suggested so that future generations can see and study designs that may disappear from streets.

Sim sees Filipino creativity as capable of moving beyond its current canvas. The graphic artist and author described jeepney art as one part of a changing culture:

It's just one aspect of Filipino art. There are other ways to express it. Traditionally and culturally, everything is in flux. Filipino identity is in its people. And we're always evolving.

The Philippine experience connects transport development with the preservation of cultural expression, a concern relevant to other countries replacing traditional systems. For passengers, cleaner air, safer vehicles and reliable connections are practical needs. For operators and artists, the terms of replacement determine whether they can continue earning a living. Local electric designs, opportunities for decoration and financial support offer ways to address those needs together.

The Essentials

• Jeepneys grew from surplus American military jeeps after World War II into decorated vehicles expressing Filipino faith, family life, humor and ambition.
• The modernization program began in 2017 and combines new vehicle standards with consolidation into cooperatives or corporations operating at least 15 vehicles.
• Traditional jeepneys are estimated to carry 40 million passenger trips daily and provide connections between neighborhoods and major transport hubs.
• Modern units cost PHP2.4 million to PHP2.8 million, while average driver earnings are around PHP500 to PHP600 a day.
• Informal jeepney artists face declining work as replacement fleets use uniform designs.
• LCS-EMON targets PHP1.2 million for its electric jeepney; Francisco Motors lists PHP985,000 for its first 1,000 electric units.
• Grace Poe has urged preservation of jeepney designs, and the Department of Transportation expressed openness to program changes in early 2025.
• Proposals include designated areas for personalized art, artists serving as consultants, and databases or museums preserving existing designs.